Solar cell structures, photovoltaic panels and corresponding processes

ABSTRACT

Photovoltaic modules comprise solar cells having doped domains of opposite polarities along the rear side of the cells. The doped domains can be located within openings through a dielectric passivation layer. In some embodiments, the solar cells are formed form thin silicon foils. Doped domains can be formed by printing inks along the rear surface of the semiconducting sheets. The dopant inks can comprise nanoparticles having the desired dopant.

CROSS REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS

This application claims priority to U.S. provisional patent applicationSer. No. 60/902,006 filed Feb. 16, 2007 to Hieshnair, entitled“Photovoltaic Cell Structures, Solar Panels and CorrespondingProcesses,” incorporated herein by reference.

FIELD OF THE INVENTION

The invention relates to photovoltaic cells, photovoltaic modules andprocesses for the formation of these devices. In particular, theinvention relates to rear point contacted photovoltaic cells andcorresponding modules. In addition, the invention relates to efficientprocessing steps for forming rear point connections.

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION

Various technologies are available for the formation of photovoltaiccells, e.g., solar cells. A majority of commercial photovoltaic cellsare based on silicon. With non-renewable energy sources continuing toincrease in price, there is continuing interest in alternative energysources. Increased commercialization of alternative energy sourcesrelies on increasing cost effectiveness through lower costs per energyunit, which can be achieved through improved efficiency of the energysource and/or through cost reduction for materials and processing.

Photovoltaic cells operate through the absorption of light to formelectron-hole pairs. A semiconductor material can be conveniently usedto absorb the light with a resulting charge separation. The electronsand holes are harvested at a voltage differential to perform useful workin an external circuit, either directly or following storage with anappropriate energy storage device.

SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION

In a first aspect, the invention pertains to a solar cell comprising atransparent front sheet, a semiconductor layer having a front surfaceand an opposite rear surface, a plurality of p-doped islands and n-dopedislands extending from the rear surface of the semiconductor layer andat least two electrical interconnects. The semiconductor layer issecured in a position with its front surface oriented toward thetransparent front sheet. Generally, one electrical interconnect provideselectrical connections between a plurality of p-doped islands, andanother electrical interconnect provides an electrical connectionbetween a plurality of n-doped islands.

In another aspect, the invention pertains to a method for forming adoped semiconductor structure, the method comprising printing aplurality of deposits onto a surface of a semiconductor sheet with someof the deposits comprising p-dopants and other deposits comprisingn-dopants. Generally, a dielectric covering is attached to thesemiconductor sheet along the surface with selected openings exposing anunderlying semiconductor surface through the dielectric covering. Theprinting can be performed through the openings.

In a further aspect, the invention pertains to a method for forming adoped semiconductor structure, the method comprising irradiating a firstlayer comprising dopants onto a surface of a semiconductor sheet,wherein a dielectric covering is attached to the semiconductor sheetalong the surface with selected openings exposing an underlyingsemiconductor surface through the dielectric covering. The irradiatingcan be performed at locations corresponding to selected windows to forma doped contact at the irradiated location.

In additional aspects, the invention pertains to a method forselectively depositing dopant along a doped semiconductor structure. Themethod comprises inkjet printing a first ink comprising p-doped silicaparticles and a second ink comprising n-doped silica particles onto asilicon substrate. In general, the silica particles of each ink have anaverage primary particle size of no more than about 100 nm, and each inkhas a concentration from about 0.1 to about 30 weight percent silicaparticles.

Moreover, the invention pertains to a photovoltaic module comprising atransparent front sheet and a solar cell comprising a semiconductorlayer secured along the transparent front sheet with a front surfacefacing the transparent front sheet, a rear dielectric layer adhered to arear surface of the semiconductor layer, doped domains located withinopenings through the rear dielectric layer, a first electricalinterconnect electrically connecting a plurality of p-doped domains anda second electrical interconnect electrically connecting a plurality ofn-doped domains wherein the electrical interconnects extend into theopenings.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

FIG. 1 is a schematic side perspective view of a photovoltaic modulewith a portion of the backing layer removed to expose some of the solarcells within the module.

FIG. 2 is a sectional side view of the photovoltaic module of FIG. 1taken along line 2-2 of FIG. 1.

FIG. 3 is a bottom view of a photovoltaic module with the backing layerremoved to expose the solar cells within the module.

FIG. 4 is a bottom perspective view of an individual solar cell.

FIG. 5 is a sectional view of the solar cell of FIG. 5 taken along line5-5 of FIG. 4.

FIG. 6 is a bottom view of a semiconductor substrate with the currentcollectors removed to expose dopant domains through holes drilledthrough a passivation layer.

FIG. 7 is a bottom view of an alternative embodiment of a solar cell.

FIG. 8 is a bottom view of the solar cell of FIG. 7 prior to applicationwith the current collectors removed to expose dopant domains withinholes through a passivation layer.

FIG. 9 is a flow diagram indicating the major process steps of modulepreparation.

FIG. 10 is a flow diagram indicating steps for solar cell processing,although the order shown in the diagram is not necessarily theprocessing order.

FIG. 11 is a photomicrograph of an actual hole drilled through a siliconnitride layer on a silicon layer.

FIG. 12 is a fragmentary, sectional side view showing a structurefollowing laser drilling to form a hole through a passivation layer.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION

Effective photovoltaic structures are formed efficiently with rearsurface contacts to efficiently harvest electron-hole pairs across thearea of the cell. In some embodiments, doped contacts are formed usingdeposition through openings or holes in a dielectric layer. Processesdescribed herein can provide efficient approaches for the formation ofsolar cells with rear connections in which the cells are electricallyconnected within a photovoltaic module. The improved processes aresuitable for thin semiconductor foil processing, although the approachescan also be adapted to thicker semiconductor layer processing. Some ofthe processing improvements are particularly suitable for module levelprocessing of a plurality of cells simultaneously. The doping approachesherein are particularly suitable for the formation of dopant structuresthat form a portion of photovoltaic contacts for photo-currentharvesting from a semiconductor substrate.

Photovoltaic modules generally comprise a transparent front sheet thatis exposed to sunlight during use of the module. The solar cells, i.e.,photovoltaic cells, within the photovoltaic module can be placedadjacent to the transparent front sheet such that light transmittedthrough the transparent front sheet can be absorbed by a semiconductormaterial in the solar cell. The transparent front sheet can providesupport, physical protection as well as protection from environmentalcontaminants and the like. The photovoltaic cells are generallyconnected in series to increase the available voltage of the module. Aphotovoltaic module can comprise sets of connected parallel photovoltaiccells along with the sets of cells connected in series. The activematerial of a photovoltaic cell is generally a semiconductor. Followingabsorption of light, photocurrent can be harvested from the conductionband to perform useful work through connection to an external circuit.For a photovoltaic cell, improved performance can be related toincreased energy conversion efficiency for a given light fluence and/orto lowering the cost of producing a cell.

Doped contact regions interfacing with the semiconductor materialfacilitate the harvesting of the photocurrent. In particular, electronicand holes can segregate to the respective n+-doped and p+-doped regions.The doped contact regions interface with electrical conductors to formcurrent collectors to harvest the photocurrent formed by absorbing lightto generate a potential between the two poles of the contacts. Within asingle cell, the doped contact regions of like polarity are connected toa common current collector such that the two current collectorsassociated with the different polarity of doped contacts form thecounter electrodes of the photovoltaic cell.

While the voltages are additive for solar cells connected in series, thecurrent of the series of cells depends on the performance of theindividual solar cells. In particular, the current through the series ofcells is essentially the current capability of the poorest currentdelivering solar cell in the series since the weakest solar cell cannotsupport a higher current at a common illumination level. Power availablefrom higher performing cells is lost by trying to push current throughthe lower performing cells. The power from series connected solar cellsis the product of the current times the voltage of the unit. The currentof a particular cell can be a function of the carrier lifetime, which isrelated to the efficiency for harvesting current from populatedconduction bands upon absorption of light. Generally, the efficiency ofthe cell is also related to the design of the cell, for example, withrespect to division of the cell into p+-doped and n+-doped regions andplacement of the doped regions.

In some embodiments, the size of the individual cells can be selectedbased on measured properties of the semiconductor material that isformed into the photovoltaic cells. Thus, the collection of cells for amodule can be sized to have significantly smaller differences in currentcapabilities. This can be particularly convenient when the individualcells are divided on or cut from a larger sheet so that the area of thesheet can be effectively and appropriately divided. In particular, asemiconductor sheet can be evaluated to estimate minority carrierlifetime, which is a primary determinant of performance, at selectedlocations along the surface of the semiconductor. Furthermore, thedopant placement as well as the size and/or dopant levels of individualdoped contacts can be also selected if desired based on measurementsrelating to the semiconductor properties. An inkjet process introduces agreat level of flexibility to the processing of the doped contactregions. Specifically, the doping process can be dynamically adjusted ina straightforward way for a particular semiconductor sheet. A furtherdescription of real time processing for cell division and/or dopantplacement is described further in copending U.S. patent application12/______ to Hielsmair et al. filed on the same day as the presentapplication, entitled “Dynamic Design of Solar Cell Structures,Photovoltaic Modules and Corresponding Processes,” incorporated hereinby reference.

The placement of dopant contact regions within a cell influencesperformance of a cell. In particular, the spacing and size of p+-dopedregions with respect to n+-doped regions can influence cell performance.Similarly, the area attributed to doped contact regions, i.e., p+-dopedand n+-doped regions influences cell performance. Thus, the numberand/or placement and/or size of n+-doped regions and p+-doped regionscan be selected to improve current generation efficiency of anindividual cell. The processing approach generally can also influencethe placement and size of the doped regions at least with respect toavailable ranges.

In embodiments of particular interest, the photovoltaic module comprisesa silicon, germanium or silicon-germanium alloy material that is usedfor the semiconductor sheet. For simplicity of discussion, the referenceherein to silicon implicitly refers to silicon, germanium,silicon-germanium alloys and blends thereof, unless indicated otherwisein context. In the claims, silicon/germanium refers to silicon,germanium, silicon-germanium alloys and blends thereof. Thesemiconductor sheets generally can be doped, although the overall dopantlevels across the semiconductor layer are less than the dopant levels ofappropriate corresponding doped contacts. In the following, embodimentsbased on polycrystalline silicon are discussed in more detail, althoughappropriate portions can be generalized for other semiconductor systemsbased on the disclosure herein. Furthermore, thin silicon foils can besuitable for processing approaches herein in which the foils have athickness form about 5 microns to about 100 microns. The formation ofthese thin foils is made possible as a result of revolutionary processapproaches.

The formation of thin foils of crystalline silicon, such aspolycrystalline silicon, is described further in copending U.S. patentapplication Ser. No. 11/717,605 filed on Mar. 13, 2007 to Hieslmair etal., entitled “Thin Silicon or Germanium Sheets and Photovoltaics FormedFrom Thin Sheets,” and U.S. provisional patent application Ser. No.61/062,398 to Hieslmair et al., filed on Jan. 25, 2008, entitled“Deposition onto a Release Layer for Synthesizing Inorganic Foils,” bothof which are incorporated herein by reference. The thin foils of siliconcan be formed using a light driven deposition process referred to aslight reactive deposition. Light reactive deposition is describedfurther in copending U.S. patent application Ser. No. 09/715,935 to Biet al., entitled “Coating Formation By Reactive Deposition,” publicationnumber 2003/0228415A to Bi et al., entitled “Coating Formation ByReactive Deposition,” and publication number 2006/0134347A to Chiruvoluet al., entitled “Dense Coating Formation By Reactive Deposition,”incorporated herein by reference.

With the use of thin semiconductor layers formed using a sacrificial,release layer, the exposed surface can be cleaned, textured and/orotherwise prepared and then the thin layer can be separated from anunderlying substrate directly onto a transparent front sheet. In someembodiments, the semiconductor layer is subsequently cut into cellswhile the sheet of semiconductor is fixed on the transparent frontsheet. Then, the front surface of the cut photovoltaic cell ispositioned at its ultimate location on the transparent front sheetwithout any need to transfer the cell. With the semiconductor structurefor the cell in position on the transparent front sheet, additionalprocessing can be performed on the back side of the cell until the cellsare completed and integrated into the module.

Metal or other electrically conducting material connects to the dopedsemiconductor regions as a current collector within a cell. The currentcollectors of adjacent cells can be joined with electrical connectionsto connect the cells in series. The end cells in the series can beconnected to an outside circuit to power selected applications or tocharge an electrical storage device, such as a rechargeable battery. Thephotovoltaic module can be mounted on a suitable frame.

In general, a photovoltaic cell comprises a photoconductingsemiconductor structure with a front surface designed for receivinglight. The front surface may have an antireflective coating and/or atexture or the like. The front surface generally is designed forplacement adjacent a transparent layer, such as a silica glass layer,within a photovoltaic module. The rear surface of the cell faces awayfrom the transparent front sheet, and generally provides for at leastsome of the electrical connections to the cell. The module generally canhave a rear seal, which may function together with a front transparentmaterial and/or frame, to protect the solar cells in the photovoltaicmodule from moisture and other environmental contaminants. Appropriateelectrical connections extend from the sealed module.

Various contact structures have been designed for photovoltaic cells.For example, doped regions can be placed on the front surface of a cell.Generally, any front placed doped regions need to be in electricalcontact with a current collector that extends to connect the contactwith the opposite pole of an adjacent cell for a series connection or toan external circuit. Some cells have one type of doped region on thefront surface and a second type of doped region on the rear surface. Inembodiments of particular interest herein, each cell has doped regionsof opposite polarity along the rear or back of the cell. Placement ofthe doped regions on the rear surface provides convenient processingwhile the front surface is supported on a transparent front sheet. Forrear connected solar cells, the front surface can be free of structuresthat may interfere with access to irradiation of the semiconductormaterial with light.

The semiconductor doped regions can be formed as doped domains along thesemiconducting material, in which the doped domains can extend into thesemiconductor material and/or extend from the surface of thesemiconductor material. P+-doped regions generally comprise an electrondeficient dopant, such as B, Al, Ga, In or combinations thereof.N+-doped regions generally comprise an electron rich dopant, such as P,As, Sb, or combinations thereof. The p+-doped regions form the cellanode (emitter), and the n+-doped regions form the cell cathode(collector). In some embodiments, the rear side of the cell has aplurality of p+-doped regions and a plurality of n+-doped regions.

Electrically conductive elements connect emitters (anode) of one cellwith collectors (cathode) of another cell in the module to form a set ofseries connected cells. The current collectors of the end cells of theseries are connected to an external circuit when the cell is in use.

In some embodiments, the front and/or rear sides of the semiconductingmaterial can comprise a passivation layer that is electricallyinsulating. Suitable materials to form passivation layers include, forexample, stoichiometric and non stoichiometric silicon oxides, siliconnitrides, and silicon oxynitrides, with or without hydrogen additions.Specifically, passivation layers can comprise, for example,SiN_(x)O_(y), x≦4/3 and y≦2, silicon oxide (SiO₂), silicon nitride(Si₃N₄), silicon rich oxide (SiO_(x), x<2), or silicon rich nitride(SiN_(x), x<4/3). These passivation layers protect the semiconductormaterial from environmental degradation, reduce surface recombination ofholes and electrons as well as provide anti-reflecting properties forfront surfaces. As described below, a process is described to deliverthe dopant materials through a passivation layer.

In some embodiments, a plurality of solar cells is cut from a largersheet of semiconductor material. Generally, any reasonable cuttingapproach can be used. For example, mechanical cutting, fluid jet cuttingor radiation based cutting can be used to cut the larger sheet. In someembodiments, radiation-based cutting, such as with a laser, can beeffectively used to make sharp divisions to form individual cells. Thesemiconductor sheet can be supported on a substrate during the cuttingprocess. It can be particularly desirable to support the semiconductorsheet for embodiments in which the semiconductor is a thin foil, suchthat the cut sections are less likely to suffer damage in handling.

The cut segments may or may not be repositioned with respect toplacement within a photovoltaic module. In other words, in someembodiments, the original semiconductor sheet can be selected to providethe semiconductor structure for a photovoltaic module or a selectedportion thereof, and the semiconductor sheet is then subdivided intoindividual cell through the cutting process. For example, thesemiconductor sheet or a plurality of semiconductor sheets, can besecured to the transparent front sheet of the module for cutting suchthat the cut cells structures are appropriately positioned for furtherprocessing into the complete module without changing the position of thesemiconductor material on the transparent front sheet. In alternativeembodiments, the cut semiconductor sections cut form a single sheet canbe separately assembled into a plurality of modules, such as one portionof segments being assembled into a first module and another portion ofsegments being assembled into a second module. In further embodiments,the cut segments can be assembled with segments cut from one or moreother semiconductor sheets into a single module, or the cut segments canbe combined with cut segments from other semiconductor sheets forassembly into multiple modules.

In general, dopants can be applied in any reasonable process to thesemiconductor materials to form doped contacts. For example, a liquidcomposition comprising a dopant element can be deposited forincorporation into the semiconductor. Alternatively, approaches havebeen described for obtaining dopants from doped silicon oxide particlesto transfer to a silicon substrate. In further embodiments, dopedsilicon particles can be used to form doped silicon domains associatedwith the semiconductor sheet. These approaches are discussed furtherbelow in the context of printing approaches for the doping of thinsilicon/germanium foils.

For the deposition of dopants for photovoltaics, the resolutiongenerally is intermediate in the sense of having a micron scaleresolution, but not on the even smaller scale of current integratedcircuit components. Thus, inkjet printing, other printing approaches orthe like can be convenient to deposit a liquid dopant composition atselect locations along the cell, such as along the rear or backside ofthe cell, to provide dopant atoms to subsequently form the respectiven+-doped and p+-doped domains. While conventional inkjet heads can beadapted for this use, redesigned print heads for the specificapplication can similarly be used to deliver desired volumes of liquidfrom a reservoir at selected locations. In addition to printingapproaches, a layer of dopant comprising a dopant can be deposited, anda laser or other radiation beam can be used to fix the dopant atselected locations to form the doped contact at the location. Inks canbe used to form the layer.

In general, any composition suitable for delivering dopant atoms in anink form can be incorporated into the ink. Dopant inks are consideredbroadly as a liquid composition capable of providing the desired dopantelements. In particular, nanoscale particles dispersed at relativelyhigh concentrations can be used in dopant inks. Dopant inks can compriseparticles with selected compositions to deliver desired dopants atdesired concentrations. For example, highly doped silica particlesand/or silicon particles can provide the dopants without introducing anysignificant quantities of contaminants with respect to silicon-basedsemiconductor sheets. In other embodiments, dopant inks can comprisenon-particulate dopant compositions.

In general, the inks can comprise a suitable liquid to form dispersionsof the particles. Suitable liquids to disperse metal oxide and metalloidoxide particles generally can comprise water, alcohols, other organicsolvents and mixtures thereof. Other liquids to disperse siliconparticles are described below. The dispersions can have concentrationsfrom low concentrations to about 50 weight percent or greater. Welldispersed particles can have a reasonably small secondary particle sizeindicating that the particles are not highly agglomerated in thedispersion.

In appropriate embodiments, the doped particles for forming the inks canbe synthesized through any reasonable process, such as flame pyrolysis,solution based methods or the like. However, highly doped particles canbe produced with desirable properties, for example, using laserpyrolysis, which is a convenient and versatile approach for thesynthesis of highly uniform submicron particles with a range ofselectable dopants. In particular, by appropriately selecting thecomposition in the reactant stream and the processing conditions,submicron particles incorporating the desired metal/metalloidcomposition stoichiometry optionally with selected dopants can beformed. While in principle a range of doped particles are suitable,doped submicron particles or nanoparticles having an average primaryparticle diameter no more than about 500 nm are desirable due to theirability to form good dispersions. In some embodiments, the dopedparticles comprise Si, Ge, SiO₂, GeO₂, combinations thereof, alloysthereof or mixtures thereof. Doped particles may be surface modifiedwith associated compositions to stabilize particle dispersions. Ingeneral, any reasonable combination of processing approaches can beadapted for dopant placement with respect to selected dopant locationson the semiconductor substrate.

The final cell structure can include other layers in addition to atransparent front sheet, a semiconductor sheet, current collectors anddopant regions. These additional layers can include, for example,adhesive layers, dielectric layers, antireflective layers, protectivelayers and the like. General approaches are described further below forgeneral placement of dopant and contact structures. However, a moredetailed description is provided for a particular embodiment relating toa silicon foil semiconductor in which dopants are deposited along therear surface and all contacts are correspondingly placed along the rearsurface of the cell.

In some embodiments, for the formation of a rear contact solar cell,efficient processing can be achieved from the deposition of apassivation, dielectric layer onto the semiconductor rear surface priorto introducing the doped contacts in association with the semiconductorlayer. Then, portions of the passivation layer can be removed to exposethe semiconductor surface to allow for contact with the dopant.Openings/holes can be placed through the passivation layer, for example,using a laser or the like, although other approaches, such as mechanicaldrilling or etching can be alternative or additional approaches. Laserdrilling or other approaches can be controlled to expose thesemiconductor surface without significantly damaging the semiconductorsurface. The size of the holes, the number of holes and/or placement ofthe holes can be selected to yield desired degrees of doping and cellperformance.

In some embodiments, patterned layered structures can be used to formdesired current collector configurations. The use of lithography,photolithography or the like can be adapted to form the layered currentcollector structures. However, printing approaches can also be used toform current collectors which are consistent with efficient and rapidprocessing approaches. In general, the use of a reasonably large numberof dopant domains can be desirable since then the p-doped and n-dopedregions can have a shorter distance to an adjacent doped region. Ifadjacent doped regions are close to each other more efficient harvestingof the photocurrent can take place.

After a dopant ink is deposited at selected positions along thesemiconductor surface, the dopants can be further processed to form thedoped contact. For dopant compositions and doped silicon oxideparticles, the dopants generally are driven into the layer ofsemiconductor material at the deposited locations, such as throughheating of the structure in an oven to mobilize the dopants, which thenmigrate into the semiconductor material. The diffusion of the dopantatoms depends on the time and diffusion conditions. In general, the ovenbased approach is relatively slow and tends to drive the dopantsrelatively deeply into the semiconductor material in order to obtaindesired levels of dopant within the semiconductor.

Alternatively or additionally, dopants can be driven into thesemiconductor using an intense light source. For example, a laser beamcan be pulsed onto the surface to melt a very thin layer along thesurface to form a shallow doped region, although deep doped regions canbe used in some embodiments. In particular, a laser can provide anintense pulse over a relatively large area to process the dopant intothe surface. Generally, suitable lasers can emit light with wavelengthsranging from infrared to ultraviolet. The pulsing of the laser can berepeated to achieve the desired level of dopant drive into the surface.If silicon oxide particles are used to provide the dopant atoms, afterthe dopant is driven into the semiconductor, the remnants of theparticles from the dopant ink can be removed from the surface through anappropriate etching process. In some embodiments, this can be donewithout removing the passivation layer.

For embodiments in which silicon particles are used to deliver thedopant atoms to the doped regions, the silicon particles can be fused atthe location to directly form the doped regions. Some dopant may or maynot diffuse into the underlying silicon sheet during this fusingprocess. Thus, the resulting doped contact region can be in the form ofa thin island on top of the semiconductor sheet and/or within thesurface of the semiconductor sheet. In either case, efficient harvestingof the photocurrent can take place since a thin doped contact over thesemiconductor sheet can perform similarly to a contact within thesemiconductor sheet.

Once the p+-doped regions and n+-doped regions are formed throughappropriate doping, the doped regions of like polarity are connected torespective current collectors. In appropriate embodiments, the holesthrough the passivation layer can be used to form the electricalconnection with the doped domains. Various approaches can be used todeposit the current collector material. For example, the currentcollector can be formed using a silver ink that is deposited at theappropriate locations, such as with an inkjet or screen printing.Suitable commercial silver inks include, for example, DowCorning® Brandhighly conductive silver inks and conductive silver ink 2512 fromMetech, Elverson, Pa. Alternatively or additionally, physical vapordeposition or the like can be used to deposit the current collectormaterial. Following deposition of the current collector material, thestructure can be heated to crosslink, fuse and/or anneal the currentcollector material if appropriate. In some embodiments, a seed layer canbe deposited for the current collector and electrochemical deposition isused to complete the current collector formation.

The current collectors generally should be connected to link adjacentcells in series. To accomplish this objective, the current collectormaterial can be deposited in a configuration that extends to connect thecells over an electrically resistive bridge or the like and/oradditional wiring or the like can be used to connect the currentcollectors of adjacent cells. An adhesive and/or backing material can beplaced over the cell rear surface to protect the rear surface and tofacilitate handling. Specifically, a backing structure, such as apolymer sheet can be placed over the entire back and/or sides of themodule. The cell module can be placed into an appropriate frame eitherbefore or after placement of a backing material or the like. Electricalleads for positive and negative poles should be accessible forconnection to an external circuit following completion of the module,although leads can be covered or otherwise protected for shipping and/orstorage.

The rear semiconductor doped region structure described herein is wellsuited for the improved processing approaches as well as for placementon the thin semiconductor substrate that can be used to form the cellstructure. Generally, a thin semiconductor layer is supported on asubstrate during processing. The processing approaches with rear sidedoped regions reduce the need to transfer the thin semiconductormaterial to reduce processing steps and reduce the chances of damagingthe thin semiconductor structure.

Module and Cell Structures

The photovoltaic modules generally have a transparent front sheet and aprotective backing layer with the solar cells between the transparentfront sheet and the protective backing layer. A plurality of solar cellsgenerally is connected in series within a photovoltaic module. Thesemiconductor structure of the photovoltaic cell can be a thin siliconfoil, although the processing approaches herein can be applied for othersemiconductor materials and formats. Each cell generally has a pluralityof doped domains to form the contacts for the two polarity currentcollectors of the cell. Generally, the solar cells can be rear or backsurface contact solar cells, although other contact structures can beadopted in further embodiments. High cell performance can be expectedfrom the structures described herein.

A schematic view of a photovoltaic module is shown in FIG. 1.Photovoltaic module 100 can comprise a transparent front sheet 102, aprotective backing layer 104, a protective seal 106, a plurality ofphotovoltaic cells 108 and terminals 110, 112. A sectional view is shownin FIG. 2. Transparent front sheet 102 can be a sheet of silica glass orother suitable material that is transparent to appropriate sun lightwavelengths and provides a reasonable barrier to environmental assaultssuch as moisture. Suitable materials for the module components arediscussed in more detail in the following section. Backing layer 104 canbe any suitable material that provides protection and reasonablehandling of the module at an appropriate cost. Backing layer 104 doesnot need to be transparent and in some embodiments can be reflective toreflect the light that transmitted through the semiconductor backthrough the semiconductor layer where a portion of the reflected lightcan be adsorbed. Protective seal 106 can form a seal between frontprotective sheet 102 and protective backing layer 104. In someembodiments, a single material, such as a heat sealable polymer film,can be used to form backing layer 104 and seal 106 as a unitarystructure.

Solar cells 108 are placed with their front surface against transparentfront sheet 102 so that solar light can reach the semiconductor materialof the photovoltaic cells. Solar cells can be connected electrically inseries using current collectors 120, conductive wires or the like. Endcells in the series can be connected respectively to terminals 110, 112that provide for connection of the module to an external circuit. Insome embodiments, some solar cells can be connected in parallel toincrease the current with an offsetting decrease in voltage, and/or setsof series connected photovoltaic cells can be connected to separateterminal associated with a large module if each series of cellsgenerates an appropriate amount of voltage. Furthermore, the averagesize of each photovoltaic cell can be adjusted to achieve desired moduleproperties. For example, the formation of a module with fewer, largercells connected in series generate a relatively larger amount of currentat a lower voltage relative to a larger number of smaller cells over thesame module footprint. The voltage from the series of cells isdetermined by adding the individual voltages of the individual seriesconnected cells.

A particular intended application generally influences the selection ofmodule size. For example, potential applications range from smallindividual external lights to solar panels for a residential house topanels for a commercial scale electricity generation facility.Reasonable module sizes may range, for example, from four squarecentimeters (cm²) or less to several square meters or larger. Once theoverall size is selected for a module, the average individual cell sizescan be selected to balance current versus voltage as well as processingconsiderations and material considerations. The processing approachesherein can be adapted for any of these selected embodiments withappropriate corresponding equipment design. In some embodiments, themodule comprises at least 10 cells, in further embodiments at least 20cells and in additional embodiments from about 24 cells to about 200cells. A person of ordinary skill in the art will recognize thatadditional ranges of cell number within the explicit ranges above arecontemplated and are within the present disclosure.

A bottom view of an embodiment of a photovoltaic module 130 is shown inFIG. 3 with the backing layer removed. In this embodiment, photovoltaiccells 132 with different areas are mounted on transparent front sheet134. In some embodiments, an entire collection of cells in a module iscut from a single large semiconductor sheet, or a set of cells of themodule is cut from a single semiconductor sheet. Dynamic cell cuttingand doping processes can allow for efficient selection of cells withareas better matched for current generation. As shown in FIG. 3, theplurality of cells is cut with approximately the same cell width whilethe cell lengths are selected to adjust current generation of the cellto a selected value. Dynamic cell division to improve module performanceis discussed further in copending U.S. patent application Ser. No.12/______ filed on the same date as the present application to Hielsmairet al., entitled “Dynamic Design of Solar Cell Structures, PhotovoltaicModules and Corresponding Processes,” incorporated herein by reference.

Referring to FIGS. 4 and 5, an embodiment of an individual photovoltaiccell is shown. In some embodiments, photovoltaic cell 150 can comprise asemiconductor layer 152, a front surface passivation layer 154, a rearsurface passivation layer 156, negative contact or collector 160, andpositive contact or emitter 162. Collector 160 generally is inelectrical contact with n+-doped regions 164, as shown in the crosssectional view in FIG. 5. Emitter 162 generally is in electrical contactwith p+-doped regions 166, as shown in FIG. 5. Doped regions 164, 166can be positioned below holes 168 in passivation layer 156, and holes168 can be filed with current collector material to make electricalcontact with doped regions 164, 166.

A bottom view is shown in FIG. 6 of the solar cell with the currentcollector material removed. In general, doped regions and correspondingholes or openings through the passivation layer can have any reasonableshape that separates the different poles of the cell. For example, theholes/openings through the passivation layer can have generallycylindrical shapes, groove shapes or other desired shapes. Roughlycylindrical holes can be formed conveniently using the processesdescribed herein. For example, the holes can be formed by laserdrilling. Similarly, openings shaped as grooves can be formed byappropriately moving a laser beam between pulses. If a greater amount ofpassivation material is removed, the corresponding size of the dopedregions increases. Thus, if more passivation material is removed,contact resistance may decrease but surface recombination of holes andelectrons may increase so that a balance between these effects caninfluence cell design.

In general, the holes can have average diameters, with averages overdifferent holes as well as over non-circular shapes, ranging from about5 microns to about 100 microns and in further embodiments from about 10microns to about 30 microns. The spacing of the holes can be from about50 microns to about 500 microns and in further embodiments from about 80microns to about 240 microns. A person of ordinary skill in the art willrecognize that additional ranges of hole dimensions and spacing withinthe explicit ranges above are contemplated and are within the presentdisclosure.

Alternating rows are visible of n+-doped regions 164 and p+-dopedregions 166 within holes 168 through layer 156. To simplify the diagram,only two rows are labeled with reference numbers 164, 166, but it isclear how these contacts line up with current collector strips in FIG. 4so that n+-doped regions are in electrical contact with negative currentcollector 160, and p+-doped regions are in electrical contact with thepositive current collector 162. Similarly, only two example holes arelabeled in the figure, although each doped region is associated with ahole. While the holes are shown in a rectangular grid in FIG. 4, thehole placement can be performed based on semiconductor propertymeasurements across the surface such that the hole placement isdynamically determined for a particular structure with placementconstrained by the ability to form appropriate current collectors.

An alternative embodiment of a solar cell is shown in FIGS. 7 and 8. Inthis embodiment, photovoltaic cell 178 has n+-doped regions 180 andp+-doped regions 182 that are arranged in a checkerboard fashion, asshown in FIG. 8. Negative contact 184 and positive contact 186 arecorrespondingly aligned in angled stripes as shown in FIG. 7. Then,negative contact 184 is in electrical contact with n+-doped regions 180,and positive contact 186 is in electrical contact with p+-doped regions182. While FIGS. 6 and 8 depict geometrically arranged contacts, thedynamic selection of contact placement can involve less symmetricplacement of the contacts, as described further below.

The structure in FIG. 7 has the current collector material for the twopoles deposited as a common level on the structure. For a rear contactphotovoltaic cell, two layer current collector structures with aninsulating layer separating the opposite polarity electrodes have beendescribed. See, U.S. Pat. No. 4,927,770 to Swanson, entitled “Method ofFabricating Back Surface Point Contact Solar Cells,” and U.S. Pat. No.6,423,568 to Verlinden et al., entitled “Method of Fabricating a SiliconSolar Cell,” both of which are incorporated herein by reference. Whilethe two layer current collector structure can be incorporated into thestructures described herein, a two layered structure would addprocessing steps.

Regardless of the configuration of the metal fingers, the metal fingersand associated metal surface can be designed to cover as much area aspractical without having the opposite poles touching since the metalalso functions as a rear light reflector. Thus, the finger width can beapproximately at least about 40 percent of the finger pitch, i.e.,spacing between centers of the fingers, and in further embodiments atleast about 50 percent of the finger pitch and in additional embodimentsfrom about 60 to about 85 percent of the finger pitch. A person ofordinary skill in the art will recognize that additional ranges offinger pitch within these explicit ranges are contemplated and arewithin the present disclosure.

The discussion above focuses on thin film semiconductor solar cells withrear contacts. However, some of the processing procedures herein can beapplied for other cell configurations. For example, thin film solarcells with a combination of front and rear contacts are describedfurther in U.S. Pat. No. 6,455,347 to Hiraishi et al., entitled “Methodof Fabricating Thin-Film Photovoltaic Module,” incorporated herein byreference. Another representative photovoltaic module structure withfront contacts and rear contacts is described in U.S. Pat. No. 5,956,572to Kidoguchi et al., entitled “Method of Fabricating Integrated ThinFilm Solar Cells,” incorporated herein by reference. Some processesdescribed herein can be adapted for processing cells with both frontcontacts and rear contacts based on the teachings herein. For theseembodiments, the dynamic cutting of the cells can be performed prior tothe transfer of the semiconductor sheet to the transparent front sheetsuch that the front surface of the semiconductor layer can be processedwith respect to placement of the front surface contacts prior tosecuring the cells to the transparent front surface. After securing thecells to the transparent substrate, the remainder of the processing canbe performed with respect to the rear surface.

Materials for Photovoltaic Assemblies

Examples of suitable materials for incorporation into the photovoltaicmodules are described in the following. The transparent front sheet canbe, for example, a silica glass, other inorganic glass material, atransparent polymer material, composites thereof or the like. Thetransparent front sheet can have an antireflective coating or otheroptical coating one or both surfaces. Suitable polymeric backing layersinclude, for example, Tedlar® “S” type, a polyvinyl fluoride film, fromDuPont. With respect to reflective materials, the polymer sheet for thebacking layer can be coated with a thin metal film, such as metalizedMylar® polyester film. A protective seal joining the transparent frontsheet and a backing layer can be formed from an adhesive, a natural orsynthetic rubber or other polymer or the like.

In general, any reasonable semiconductor material useful for solar cellscan be processed as described herein if the material can be formed intosheets that can be appropriately cut into selected cell sizes. However,polycrystalline silicon provides desired levels of performance whilehaving reasonably cost materials available for forming large areasemiconductor sheets that can be cut into individual solar cells. Inparticular, suitable semiconducting material includes, for example, thinfoils of polycrystalline silicon.

Thin foils of silicon or other inorganic semiconductors can be formed ona sacrificial release layer. In some embodiments, the release layer ismechanically weak so that the release layer can be fractured withoutdamage to the silicon layer on top of the release layer. The formationof thin sheets of silicon by Light Reactive Deposition (LRD™) isdescribed further in published U.S. patent application 2007/0212510A toHieslmair et al., filed on Mar. 13, 2007, entitled “Thin Silicon orGermanium Sheets and Photovoltaics Formed From Thin Sheets,”incorporated herein by reference. Similarly, the thin films of siliconon a release layer can be formed using a chemical vapor deposition (CVD)approach onto a porous release layer at an atmospheric orsub-atmospheric pressure. The CVD process onto a porous release layer isdescribed further in U.S. provisional patent application Ser. No.61/062,398 to Hieslmair et al., filed on Jan. 25, 2008, entitled“Deposition Onto a Release Layer for Synthesizing Inorganic Foils,”incorporated herein by reference. The properties of the silicon foilscan be improved through an efficient zone melt recrystallization processdesigned for use with thin foils on a release layer as described furtherin copending U.S. provisional patent application Ser. No. 61/062,420filed on Jan. 25, 2008 to Hielsmair et al., entitled “Zone MeltRecrystallization for Thin Silicon Films,” incorporated herein byreference.

The use of a thin silicon sheets reduces material usage while promisinggood cell performance. Thin silicon sheets generally have thicknesses ofno more than about 250 microns. In some embodiments, the thin siliconfoils can have a thickness of no more than about 100 microns, in furtherembodiments from about 5 micron to about 100 microns, in otherembodiments from about 10 microns to about 80 microns and in furtherembodiments from about 30 microns to about 60 microns and any subrangewithin these ranges. A person of ordinary skill in the art willrecognize that additional ranges of foil thickness within the explicitranges are contemplated and are within the present disclosure. With theuse of thin semiconductor foils formed using a sacrificial, releaselayer, the top surface can be cleaned, textured, coated and/or otherwiseprepared and then the thin foil can be separated from an underlyingsubstrate directly onto a transparent substrate. In some embodiments,one or more additional layers, such as a passivation layer, can bedeposited over and/or under the silicon layer.

The silicon foil can be transferred to the transparent front sheet, forexample, using an adhesive composition to adhere the silicon foil orusing electrostatic interaction. Suitable adhesives include, forexample, silicone adhesives or EVA adhesives. Other reasonable adhesivescan be used for other uses in photovoltaic module assembly, such as theadherence of a backing material, attachment to a frame, forming sealswithin the structure and the like. Other polymers, such as rubbers canbe also used in forming seals. Processes and apparatuses for thetransfer of thin inorganic foils to receiving surfaces is describedfurther in copending U.S. provisional patent application Ser. No.61/062,399 filed on Jan. 25, 2008 to Mosso et al., entitled “LayerTransfer for Large Area Inorganic Foils,” incorporated herein byreference.

In some embodiments, the front and rear sides of the semiconductinglayer can comprise a passivation layer that is electrically insulating.Suitable materials to form passivation layers include, for example,stoichiometric and non-stoichiometric silicon oxides, silicon nitrides,and silicon oxynitrides, silicon carbides, silicon carbonitrides,combinations thereof and mixtures thereof, with or without hydrogenadditions. In some embodiments, passivation layers can comprise, forexample, SiN_(x)O_(y) x≦4/3 and y≦2, silicon oxide (SiO₂), siliconnitride (Si₃N₄), silicon rich oxide (SiO_(x), x<2), or silicon richnitride (SiN_(x), x<4/3). The passivation layers can protect thesemiconductor material from environmental degradation, reduce surfacerecombination of holes and electrons, provide structural design featuresand/or assist with some processing steps, as well as provideanti-reflecting properties for front surfaces. In some embodiments,front passivation layer can comprise SiN_(x)O_(y) or other transparentdielectric material. The passivation layer generally is also chemicallyinert so that the cell is more resistant to any environmentalcontaminants.

Passivation layers can be formed in a similar reactive depositionprocess that forms the thin crystalline silicon layer, although thepassivation layers can be formed from other techniques such as CVD orPVD techniques using, for example, commercial deposition apparatuses, orwith Light Reactive Deposition. Light Reactive Deposition (LRD™) isdescribed further in copending U.S. patent application Ser. Nos.09/715,935 to Bi et al., entitled “Coating Formation By ReactiveDeposition,” 10/414,443 to Bi et al., entitled “Coating Formation ByReactive Deposition,” and 11/017,214 to Chiruvolu et al., entitled“Dense Coating Formation By Reactive Deposition,” incorporated herein byreference. The passivation layers can be deposited with plasma CVD orthe like. The passivation layers generally can have a thicknessgenerally from about 10 nanometers (nm) to 200 nm and in furtherembodiments from 30 nm to 180 nm and in further embodiments from 50 nmto 150 nm. A person of ordinary skill in the art will recognize thatadditional ranges of thicknesses within the explicit ranges above arecontemplated and are within the present disclosure.

The front passivation layer and/or rear passivation layer generally canhave texture to scatter light into the semiconductor layer, for example,to increase effective light path and corresponding absorption of thelight. In some embodiments, the textured material can comprise a roughsurface with an average peak to peak distance from about 50 nm to about100 microns. The texture can be introduced during the deposition processto form the passivation layer and/or the texture can be added subsequentto the deposition step.

As noted above, the processing of the semiconductor material into asolar cell involves the delivery of dopant materials for the formationof doped contacts. In general, any reasonable ink can be used that iscapable of delivering the desired dopant atoms to the exposed silicon.For example, phosphorous or boron containing liquids can be deposited.In particular, suitable inks can comprise, for example, trioctylphosphate, phosphoric acid in ethylene glycol and/or propylene glycol orboric acid in ethylene glycol and/or propylene glycol. In someembodiments, inks loaded with inorganic particles can be deposited toprovide the dopants. For example, the inorganic particles can comprisedoped silica or doped silicon. Doped silica glasses have been used todeliver dopants for photovoltaic cells using photolithographicprocesses. The use of inks with doped particles can provide for printingof the dopants at desired locations, for example using inkjet printing.

In embodiments of particular interest, the doped particles have anaverage primary particle size of no more than about 250 nm, in otherembodiments no more than about 100 nm, in further embodiments no morethan about 50 nm and in additional embodiments no more than about 25 nm.A person of ordinary skill in the art will recognize that additionalranges of particle size within the explicit ranges above arecontemplated and are within the present disclosure. In general, dopedparticles generally can be formed from either reactive flow basedapproaches or solution based approaches. Submicron inorganic particleswith various compositions can be produced by pyrolysis, especially lightbased pyrolysis or laser pyrolysis, alone or with additional processing.In light-based pyrolysis/laser pyrolysis, light from an intenseelectromagnetic radiation source drives the reaction to form theparticles. For convenience, this application refers to light-basedpyrolysis and laser pyrolysis interchangeably, since a suitable intensesource of electromagnetic radiation can be used in place of a laser.Laser pyrolysis is useful in the formation of particles that are highlyuniform in composition, crystallinity and size. Furthermore, inorganicparticles can be effectively formed, for example, using laser pyrolysisthat results in particles that have desirable surface properties thatlead to high dispersibility and ready incorporation into desiredstructures, although other sources of particles can be used.

In particular, laser pyrolysis approaches have been developed for thesynthesis of submicron multiple metal/metalloid oxide compositeparticles and other complex metal/metalloid particle compositions aswell as doped compositions thereof. The metals/metalloid elements areintroduced into the reactant stream. By appropriately selecting thecomposition in the reactant stream and the processing conditions,submicron particles incorporating the desired metal/metalloidcomposition stoichiometry optionally with selected dopants can beformed. The synthesis of doped particles with laser pyrolysis isdescribed further in U.S. Pat. No. 6,849,334 to Home et al., entitled“Optical Materials and Optical Devices,” incorporated herein byreference.

In general, the inks can comprise a suitable liquid to form dispersionsof the particles. Suitable liquids to disperse metal oxide and metalloidoxide particles generally can comprise water, alcohols, other organicsolvents and mixtures thereof. The dispersions can have concentrationsfrom low concentrations to about 50 weight percent or in some embodimentto about 20 weight percent or greater. Well dispersed particles can havea reasonably small secondary particle size indicating that the particlesare not highly agglomerated in the dispersion. The particles can have asurface modification to stabilize the particles dispersion and/or othersurface active agents can be included in the dispersion.

Particles formed by laser pyrolysis generally have appropriate surfacechemistry to be dispersed at moderate concentrations. The stability ofparticle dispersions can be improved at higher concentrations ofparticles through surface modification of the particles. In general, thesurface properties of the particles influence the dispersion of theparticles. The surface properties of the particles generally depend onthe synthesis approach as well as the post synthesis processing. Somesurface active agents, such as many surfactants, act through non-bondinginteractions with the particle surfaces. In some embodiments, desirableproperties are obtained through the use of surface modification agentsthat chemically bond to the particle surface. Suitable surfacemodification agents include, for example, alkoxysilanes, whichchemically bond to metal oxide and metalloid oxide particles through anO—Si bond. In particular, trialkoxysilanes form stable bonds withparticle surfaces. The side group of the silane influences the resultingproperties of the surface modified particles.

When processing a dry, as-synthesized powder, it has been found thatforming a good dispersion of the particle prior to surface modificationfacilitates the surface modification process and results in particleswith a higher degree of surface modification. Surface modification ofthe particles can increase the range of suitable liquid, and inparticular provide for good dispersion of the particles in less polarsolvents. Some form of mixing, sonication or the like can be used toimprove the dispersion of the particles. In some embodiments, theaverage secondary particle size can be no more than a factor of fourtimes the average primary particle size, in further embodiments no morethan about 3 times the average primary particle size and in additionalembodiments no more than about 2 times the average primary particlesize. Furthermore, the volume-average particle size may be no more thanabout 1 micron, in further embodiments no more than about 250 nm, inadditional embodiments no more than about 100 nm, in other embodimentsno more than about 75 nm and in some embodiments from about 5 nm toabout 50 nm.

For printing applications, it can be desirable to form colloidaldispersions. Thus, in some embodiments, the dispersions can be aqueousdispersions with small amounts of ammonia or other compositions to raisethe pH of the dispersion. To form the inks from the inorganic particledispersions, other additives can be included if desired, such asviscosity modifiers, surfactants or the like. For some embodiments, theviscosity can be from 0.1 mPa·s to about 100 mPa·s and in furtherembodiments from about 0.5 mPa·s to about 25 mPa·s. For someembodiments, the dispersions/inks can have a surface tension from about2.0 to about 6.0 N/m² and in further embodiments from about 2.2 to about5.0 N/m² and in additional embodiments form about 2.5 to about 4.5 N/m².A person of ordinary skill in the art will recognize that additionalranges of viscosity and surface tension within the explicit ranges aboveare contemplated and are within the present disclosure.

The formation of suitable inks comprising silicon oxide particles forperforming semiconductor doping is described in copending U.S. patentapplication Ser. No. 12/006,459 to Hieslmair et al., filed on Jan. 2,2008, entitled “Silicon/Germanium Oxide Particle Inks, Inkjet Printingand Processes for Doping Semiconductor Substrates,” incorporated hereinby reference. The formation of suitable inks comprising siliconparticles for forming doped semiconductor domains is described furtherin copending U.S. patent application Ser. No. 12/006,453 to Hieshnair etal. filed on Jan. 2, 2008, entitled “Silicon/Germanium Particle Inks,Doped Particles, Printing and Processes for Semiconductor Applications,”incorporated herein by reference. These materials described in thesepatent applications can be applied to the processes described herein.

Cell Processing and Module Processing

The processing steps described here are appropriate and efficient forthe processing of photovoltaic modules, optionally with dynamicallydesigned solar cells within the module. In some embodiments, the solarcells are designed for fabrication from thin silicon foils as thesemiconducting sheet. However, at least some of the processingprocedures are generally applicable and advantageous for the productionof photovoltaic cells with a silicon sheet of any thickness as well ascells formed from other semiconductor materials. Some of the processingsteps or series of processing steps are directed specifically to theefficient production of rear side contacts for harvesting of currentfrom the cell. Dopant can be placed through holes in a passivation layerwhich can be combined with careful placement of current collectormaterial for the formation of the rear contact cells with reducednumbers of processing steps while achieving desirable structures thatpromise to achieve improved performance with a reduce quantity ofmaterials.

In general, the processing steps can comprise, for example,semiconductor sheet preparation 190, cell structure processing 196 andmodule completion 198, as shown in FIG. 9. In some embodiments of theoverall processing approach described herein, the process generallyinvolves the use of one or more large sheets of semiconductor, e.g.,silicon, that are divided during the process into individual cells. Ingeneral, the processes can provide for appropriate handling of thematerials as well as efficient processing with reduced waste and reducednumbers of processing steps without sacrificing the quality of moduleperformance.

The semiconductor sheet preparation 190 is directed to the formation ofan initial semiconductor sheet in preparation for performing furtherprocessing to form solar cells from the semiconductor sheet. The initialsemiconductor sheet structure can be formed generally by any suitableapproach. For example, the semiconductor sheet can be cut from a siliconingot. However, in other embodiments, the semiconductor sheet is formedat least in part with a reactive deposition process. Appropriatereactive deposition processes for forming the semiconductor sheets aredescribed above. Through a reactive deposition process, a very thin foilof silicon can be formed for use in the module. Even though the siliconfoil is thin, it can be handled with appropriate transfer techniquesthat avoid damage to the foil.

Some steps relating to cell structure processing 196 can be performedprior to semiconductor sheet preparation 190. For example, a passivationlayer can be deposited prior to forming the semiconductor sheet with thesemiconductor sheet being deposited onto the passivation layer. One orboth of the passivation layers can be formed as part of the reactivedeposition process. The passivation layers are generally textured. Thetransparent front sheet can provide mechanical support for thesemiconductor sheet during the subsequent processing steps.

In some embodiments, in the reactive deposition process, the one or morelayers of the structure with a semiconductor layer are formedsequentially onto a release layer. The release layer can have acomposition and/or mechanical properties that provide for fracture orrelease of the structure from the original substrate. Depending onfurther handling of the silicon foil, either the rear surface or thefront surface of the silicon foil can be formed against the releaselayer. In alternative embodiments, the silicon is directly depositedonto the transparent front sheet so that the front surface of the cellis formed onto the transparent front sheet without any need for arelease layer or corresponding transfer. In either orientation, thestructure can be further processed, such as heat treated, whileassociated with the original substrate. While in principle the dopantregions of the cells can be formed through the reactive depositionprocess, efficient and convenient approaches for forming dopant contactsare described herein that provide for electrical connection to the dopedcontacts.

In the reactive deposition process involving a release layer, therelease layer can be deposited onto a substrate, which may be reusable.The release layer can be a porous, particulate ceramic composition thatcan be deposited through a reactive deposition process, and suitablecompositions include, for example, similar compositions as are suitablefor passivation layers. Since the substrates can be reusable, highquality substrates can be used without excessively increasing the cost.In one example of an embodiment, a thin silicon nitride or siliconoxynitride rear passivation layer can be deposited over the releaselayer. Then, a crystalline silicon layer can be deposited over the rearpassivation layer. In some embodiments, a thin front passivation layercan be deposited over the crystalline silicon layer.

Reactive deposition to form silicon foils and passivation layers isdescribed further above in the materials section. In some embodiments,the structure formed by reactive deposition can then be heated toconsolidate the passivation layers and/or to anneal the crystallinesilicon layer and/or otherwise modify the properties of the layers. Animproved method for performing zone melt recrystallization of thinsilicon foils is also referenced above.

The semiconductor sheet is further processed to form the solar cellthrough the formation of doped contacts to harvest the photocurrent andthe placement of current collectors to direct the harvestedphotocurrent. In embodiments of particular interest, the individualsolar cells are cut from a larger semiconductor sheet. The solar cellscan be positioned to receive light through a transparent front sheet.The discussion herein focuses on the formation of rear contact solarcells, but at least some of the processing steps can be generalized forother doped contact placement based on the teachings herein. The cellstructure processing 196 (FIG. 9) can comprise, for example, one or moreof the steps in FIG. 10, although the steps are not necessarilyperformed in the order presented when not necessary for processingconsiderations, and generally additional processing steps can beincluded for specific commercial designs.

In general, referring to FIG. 10, cell structure processing 196 cancomprise, for example, depositing one or more additional layers 260,transferring the semiconductor to the transparent front sheet 262,cutting cells 264, preparing the structure for dopant deposition 266,depositing dopant composition 268, curing the dopant 270, depositingcell current collectors 272 and curing the current collectors 274,although additional steps can be used, and some steps may be combinableor optional. The deposition of additional layers can involve theformation of, for example, passivation layers along the top and/orbottom surface of the semiconductor sheet. In alternative embodiments,one or more passivation layer can be formed during the process forforming the semiconductor layer. Compositions, parameters and methodsfor forming passivation layers are described above. Additionalprotective layers, adhesive layers and processing layers can also bedeposited, which can be temporary or layers for the finished solar cell.

The passivation layers for the respective sides of the semiconductorlayer can be deposited at appropriate times in the process. Thepassivation layers are generally textured. The texturing can be donewith plasma etching or other suitable method, and/or the texture can beincorporated into the layer during deposition. Additional layers can bedeposited as appropriate to form desired structures, such as layeredcurrent collectors. Similarly, etching processes and lithographic andphotolithographic approaches can be used to pattern layers.

With respect to the transfer of the semiconductor sheet to thetransparent front sheet 262, this process depends to a significantdegree on the nature of the semiconductor. In general, this process canbe performed for thicker semiconductor structures straightforwardly. Forthin silicon foils, this process can be directly performed from astructure involving a porous, particulate release layer or priortransfer steps can be performed so that the transfer to the transparentfront sheet can take place from a temporary receiving surface. Processesand apparatus for the handling and transfer of thin inorganic foils isdescribed further in copending U.S. provisional patent application61/062,399 filed on Jan. 25, 2008 to Mosso et al., entitled “LayerTransfer for Large Area Inorganic Foils,” incorporated herein byreference. The semiconducting structure with any passivation layers andthe like can be laminated to the transparent front sheet with atransparent adhesive or the like.

The cells are cut 264 from the semiconductor sheet at an appropriatepoint in the cell structure processing process. Generally, the sheet iscut into cells at some point after measurement of the semiconductor, ifperformed, and before final processing steps to form the completemodule. Additionally, the solar cells can be cut from the semiconductorsheet before or after positioning on the transparent front sheet.Cutting after placement on the transparent front sheet eliminates anyseparate alignment steps, but this processing order generally more orless fixes the particular arrangement of the cells unless additionalremoval and replacement steps are performed. With the semiconductorstructure for the cell in position on the transparent substrate,additional processing can be performed on the back side of the celluntil the cells are completed and integrated into the module.

The solar cells can be cut from the semiconductor sheet based on theselected division that optionally may be mapped during the dynamic celldesign. If dynamic cell design is not performed, generally the sheet isdivided to form approximately equal sized cells. Since photovoltaicmodules are typically installed at a site in series and/or in parallel,it is often desirable for modules to have a certain rated current(series) or rated voltage (parallel). To achieve a target current, thecells are divided such that each cell produces a current ofapproximately the target value. Then, the series connected cells of themodule produce an overall current approximately equal to the targetvalue. To reach a target voltage, the rough voltage value of a cell canbe used to select a total number of cells to reach the target value.Then, appropriate division of the sheet into cells that add in series tothe target value. Setting a current and voltage target simultaneously ispossible generally by sacrificing some degree of the power performance.

While the cells are divided in a regular pattern without use of themeasurements, advantages can be gained through the dynamic cutting ofthe cells into sizes that more closely match the current from theindividual cells. The use of measurements of the semiconductor foil todynamically select cell sizes is described further in copending U.S.patent application Ser. No. 12/______, filed on the same day as thepresent application to Hieslmair et al., entitled “Dynamic Design ofSolar Cell Structures, Photovoltaic Modules and CorrespondingProcesses,” incorporated herein by reference.

The cells can be cut using reasonable mechanical methods, such as with asaw having a hard edge blade, a fluid jet cutting apparatus or othermechanical methods. However, available laser cutting techniques providefor particular convenience especially with the real time determinationof cell placement. Suitable laser cutting systems are available fromOxford Lasers, Inc., Shirley, Mass., USA, and IPG Photonics Corp.,Oxford, Mass., USA as well as other commercial sources. In general, anyreasonable laser frequency can be used that oblates the material, suchas Ytterbium lasers operating at 1070 nm. If the semiconductor sheet iscut while adhered to the transparent substrate, the selected cuttingapproach may cut into the transparent substrate slightly withoutdamaging cell performance as long as the transparent substrate maintainsits mechanical integrity. In general, the laser cutting of the cells canbe performed before, after or between steps relating to formation of thedoped contacts.

The preparation for dopant deposition 266, if performed, generallyinvolves providing access to the semiconductor surface with respect topassivation layers or other layers that can be placed along thesemiconductor surface along with the dopant. In some embodiments, apassivation layer can be patterned to provide exposed regions that canaccept dopant. Photolithographic techniques, other lithographictechniques, which can involve various etching approaches, can be usedfor patterning of the structure. In principle, the patterning of thepassivation layer or other covering layers can performed after thedoping process if the dopants can be placed without significantmigration, although this processing order of doping first providesconstraints on the other processing steps and involves fairly preciserelative positioning to properly expose the resulting dopants. In someembodiments, a desirable approach comprises the drilling of holesthrough a passivation layer. The dopants can be printed into the holes,which become the location of the doped contacts. The reference to holesis not intended to imply cylindrical structures, and holes can haveselected shapes and sizes. Appropriate ranges of hole sizes arediscussed above.

Appropriate positions for doping can be determined within each cell.Patterns for positioning the doped contacts are discussed in the contextof FIGS. 4-8 above. For example, the holes for the dopant placement canplace on a rectangular grid or other appropriate geometric arrangement.In some embodiment, appropriate positions for dopant deposition can bedetermined dynamically within each cell. The dynamic selection of dopantplacement can be based on measurements of the semiconductor propertiesacross the semiconductor sheet. The use of dynamic dopant placementbased on semiconductor measurements is described further in copendingU.S. patent application Ser. No. 12/______, filed on the same day as thepresent application to Hieslmair et al., entitled “Dynamic Design ofSolar Cell Structures, Photovoltaic Modules and CorrespondingProcesses,” incorporated herein by reference.

Holes through a passivation layer can be laser drilled or mechanicallydrilled. For example, laser hole drilling can use a green to UV lasercan be used with a short pulse from 10 nanoseconds (ns) to 100 ns,although other laser frequencies and firing sequences can be used. Laserfluences of about 2 to about 30 J/cm² per pulse are estimated to beappropriate for a single pulse to open a hole. A person of ordinaryskill in the art will recognize that additional ranges within theexplicit laser parameter ranges above are contemplated and are withinthe present disclosure. Experiments have shown that for a silicon richsilicon nitride film with a thickness of about 60 nm, a single 25 nspulse at 355 nm wavelength from a wavelength tripled YAG laser formed asuitable opening with a fluence of 4.3 j/cm². A photomicrograph of theresulting hole is shown in FIG. 11. Shorter wavelengths and shorterpulse times are expected to cause less damage to the underlying silicon,but there may be a range of tradeoffs from a commercial perspective,such as cost.

The laser drilling of the holes is expected to create some debris. Ashallow etch can remove the debris as well as a damaged layer in thesilicon. Suitable chemical etching can be performed withnitric/hydrofluoric acid mixtures, tetramethyl-ammonium hydroxide (TMAH)or potassium hydroxide (KOH) etching compositions. A schematic sectionalview of the resulting structure after the etch is shown in FIG. 12, inwhich hole 290 extends through passivation layer 292 and partially intosemiconductor 294. In general, after the laser ablation, chemical etchand/or other removal steps, from about 1% to about 50%, in furtherembodiments from about 5% to about 30% and in additional embodimentsabout 10% to about 25% of the dielectric passivation layer is removed toexpose clean, effectively undamaged silicon underneath the holes withthe remaining portions being covered by the passivation layer. A personof ordinary skill in the art will recognize that additional ranges ofpassivation layer removal within the explicit ranges above arecontemplated and are within the present disclosure.

A dopant composition can then be applied 268 through the holes tocontact the exposed silicon. In some embodiments, the dopant isdelivered in a dopant carrying ink, which can be dispensed, for example,using an inkjet printer of the like. Inkjet resolution over large areasis presently readily available at 200 to 800 dpi, which is adequate topattern 100 to 200 pitch lines with single drops to cover the laserscribed holes. Also, inkjet resolution is continuing to improve. Twoinks generally are used, with one ink providing n-type dopants, such asphosphorous and/or arsenic, and the second ink providing p-type dopants,such as boron, aluminum and/or gallium. Suitable inks are describedabove that can comprise a dopant composition as a liquid or dissolved ina liquid, or comprising dopant particles, such as doped silica particlesor doped silicon particles.

After the dopant is deposited, the dopant can be cured 270 (FIG. 10) asappropriate to provide desired electrical interaction between the dopedcontact and the semiconductor material. For example, after depositingthe dopant inks, an optional drying step can be used to remove solventsand/or other organics. In some embodiments, a thin film with a thicknessof less than a micron can be left for further dopant cure processing.The nature of the dopant cure depends on the nature of the dopantcomposition. For dopant comprising liquids and silica particle inks, thedopant is driven into the silicon layer to form the doped contacts,while for silicon particle inks, the silicon can be fused in place toform the doped contacts.

For appropriate embodiments, during the drive-in step, the depositeddopant element is driven into the silicon to form a doped contact in thesilicon. The drive-in can be performed with heating in an oven toaccelerate solid state diffusion. Thermal drive-in of dopants generallyresults in a Gaussian profile of dopant in the silicon so that arelatively deep dopant structure generally is obtained to obtain adesired overall doping level. Generally, the dopant levels can be fromabout 5.0×10¹⁸ to about 5×10¹⁹ atoms per cubic centimeter (cc).

However, in some embodiments, a laser drive-in is performed, forexample, with a UV laser, such as an excimer laser, although a widerange of laser frequencies can be suitable for the laser-based dopantdrive in. In particular, excimer laser pulses of 10 to 1000 ns canresult in melting of silicon at temperatures exceeding 1400° C. todepths of 20 to 80 nm. As a specific example, Excimer laser fluences ofabout 0.75 J/cm² for a 20 ns pulse or 1.8 J/cm² for a 200 ns pulse aresuitable parameters for shallow molten regions, although other lasers,laser frequencies and other power parameters can be used as appropriate.Dopants in the overlayer diffuse rapidly into the melted silicon, butgenerally diffuse very little past the melted silicon. Thus, anapproximately step-wise dopant profile can be achieved with dopantconcentrations possibly reaching levels greater than solubility.Additionally, the bulk of the silicon layer and lower layers remain ator near ambient room temperature, and a lower temperature process can beadvantageous since less energy is consumed.

In some embodiments, with a laser based drive in, a heavily dopedcontact can be formed with a relatively shallow profile, with thicknessfrom about 10 nm to about 500 nm and in further embodiments from about20 nm to about 100 nm. In some embodiments with a shallow profile, thedopant profile has at least about 95 atomic percent of the dopant in thesemiconductor within about 500 nm of the semiconductor surface and infurther embodiments within about 100 nm of the semiconductor surface. Aperson of ordinary skill in the art will recognize that additionalranges of doped contact depth within the explicit ranges above arecontemplated and are within the present disclosure. The dopant profilecan be measured using Secondary Ion Mass Spectrometry (SIMS) to evaluatethe elemental composition along with sputtering or other etching tosample different depths from the surface.

Similarly, a doped-silicon deposit on the surface of the siliconsemiconducting sheet can be melted to form a doped contact inassociation with the semiconducting sheet. The silicon particles can bemelted in an oven or the like, or by placing the structure in a lightbased heating system, such as a laser-based scanning apparatus. Again,light sources, such as lasers, with a wide range of frequencies can beadapted to cure the silicon particles into a doped contact.

Some dopant inks may leave little if any residue after drive-in. Dopantinks using doped silica (SiO₂) generally are cleaned from the surfacefollowing dopant drive-in. Residual SiO₂ and some impurities can beremoved with an HF etch.

In additional or alternative embodiments, the dopant deposition 268 anddopant curing 270 can be performed in a plurality of alternating stepswith different dopant compositions. In particular, a first dopantcomposition can be formed as a layer. Then, a drive in step is performedusing irradiation beam, such as a laser beam. The radiation beam can befocused to cure the dopant at the desired location, e.g., correspondingto a hole through a passivation layer. The dopant can comprise a dopantliquid and/or doped particles, such as silicon particles or silicaparticles. The curing is performed as described above.

After a first dopant is cured at selected locations, residual portionsof the layer are washed off, such as with an organic solvent or anetching composition, in which at least a significant portion of thecured dopant remains. Then, a second layer of a different dopant isapplied. Irradiation is used to cure the second dopant at a second setof locations. Then, the residual of the second dopant layer is removed.In this way, n-dopants and p-dopants can be successively deposited ineither order. Spin coating, spray coating or other convenient coatingapproach can be used to form the layers, for example, with a dopant inkas described herein.

Referring to FIG. 10, current collector materials are deposited 272 toform electrical connections with the doped contacts so that theharvested photocurrent can be guided external to the cell. Currentcollectors are formed to electrically connect the doped contacts to formtwo poles of the cell that are suitable to connection to a moduleterminal or another cell. Within a cell, the doped contacts areelectrically connected within the cell configuration, generally withparticular polarities, i.e., types of dopant contacts, connected inparallel. The deposition of the current collector material can beperformed, for example, using an inkjet to deposit metallizationmaterials directly or to deposit a conductive seed pattern forsubsequent electroplating. In some embodiments, direct deposition ofmetallization material can comprise depositing with an inkjet an inkwith a polymer-silver particle composite For electroplating basedembodiments, a seed layer can comprise any electrically conductivematerial, such as a layer of Cu, Ag, or Ni. Use of a seed layer andsubsequent electroplating is described further, for example, in U.S.Pat. No. 6,630,387 to Horii, entitled “Method for Forming Capacitor ofSemiconductor Memory Device Using Electroplating Method,” incorporatedherein by reference.

An appropriate approach for curing of the current collector material 274(FIG. 10) depends on the nature of the current collector material. Insome embodiments, the current collector material can be heated to annealmetal or other materials to form a good juncture. Polymer metal particlecomposites can be cured into a highly conductive material upon moderateheating that is effective to crosslink the polymer. Some polymercomposites can be cured with radiation.

In some embodiments, inkjet metallization can be extended to connectmultiple solar cells in series if a bridge is used to span the gapformed from cutting the cells. The bridge should be formed from anelectrically insulating filler. Suitable fillers include, for example,compliant, flexible polymers that do not introduce strains into themodule structure. Suitable polymers can be deposited usingstraightforward processes, such as extrusion, molding or the like. Theformation of a bridge and inkjet metallization over the bridgeeliminates the need for soldering cells together. Alternatively, thecells can be soldered together with copper wires or the like, or otherapproaches to form the electrical connections can be used.

Referring to FIG. 9, once the cells are completed, further processingsteps can be performed to complete module formation 198. During finalprocessing steps to complete the module, electrodes of the solar cellscan be connected in series, and other electrical connects can be formedas desired. Also, appropriate electrodes of cells at the end of theseries are connected to module terminals. Specifically, once theelectrical connections between cells are completed, the external moduleconnections can be formed, and the rear plane of the module can besealed. A backing layer can be applied to seal the rear of the cell.Since the rear sealing material does not need to be transparent, a rangeof materials and processes can be used, as discussed above. If a heatsealing film is used, the film is put in place, and the module is heatedto moderate temperatures to form the seal without affecting the othercomponents. Then, the module can be mounted into a frame as desired.

The embodiments above are intended to be illustrative and not limiting.Additional embodiments are within the claims. In addition, although thepresent invention has been described with reference to particularembodiments, those skilled in the art will recognize that changes can bemade in form and detail without departing from the spirit and scope ofthe invention. Any incorporation by reference of documents above islimited such that no subject matter is incorporated that is contrary tothe explicit disclosure herein.

1. A solar cell comprising a transparent front sheet, a semiconductorlayer having a front surface and an opposite rear surface, a pluralityof p-doped islands and n-doped islands extending from the rear surfaceof the semiconductor layer and at least two electrical interconnects,wherein the semiconductor layer is secured in position with its frontsurface oriented toward the transparent front sheet and wherein oneelectrical interconnect provides electrical connections between aplurality of p-doped islands and another electrical interconnectprovides an electrical connection between a plurality of n-dopedislands.
 2. The solar cell of claim 1 wherein the doped islands comprisedoped elemental silicon/germanium.
 3. The solar cell of claim 1 whereinthe semiconductor layer comprises a silicon/germanium foil having anaverage thickness from about 5 microns to about 100 microns.
 4. Thesolar cell of claim 1 wherein the doped islands are aligned withopenings through a rear dielectric passivation layer.
 5. The solar cellof claim 4 wherein the rear dielectric passivation layer comprises asilicon oxide, a silicon nitride, a silicon oxynitride or a combinationthereof.
 6. The solar cell of claim 1 wherein a front dielectricpassivation layer is located between the semiconductor layer and thetransparent front sheet.
 7. A photovoltaic module comprising a solarcell of claim 1 and a plurality of additional solar cell structuresalong the sheet of transparent material.
 8. A method for forming a dopedsemiconductor structure, the method comprising printing a plurality ofdeposits onto a surface of a semiconductor sheet with some of thedeposits comprising p-dopants and other deposits comprising n-dopants,wherein a dielectric covering is attached to the semiconductor sheetalong the surface with selected openings exposing an underlyingsemiconductor surface through the dielectric covering and wherein theprinting is performed through the openings.
 9. The method of claim 8wherein the printing comprises inkjet printing.
 10. The method of claim8 wherein the printing comprises the deposition of an ink comprisingdoped particles.
 11. The method of claim 10 wherein the doped particleshave an average primary particle diameter of no more than about 100 nm.12. The method of claim 10 wherein the doped particles compriseelemental silicon/germanium.
 13. The method of claim 10 wherein thedoped particles comprise doped silica/germania.
 14. The method of claim13 further comprising driving the dopants into the semiconductor sheetand performing an etch to remove the silica/germania after the drivingin of the dopants.
 15. A method for forming a doped semiconductorstructure, the method comprising irradiating a first layer comprisingdopants onto a surface of a semiconductor sheet, wherein a dielectriccovering is attached to the semiconductor sheet along the surface withselected openings exposing an underlying semiconductor surface throughthe dielectric covering, wherein the irradiating is performed atlocations corresponding to selected windows to form a doped contact atthe irradiated location.
 16. The method of claim 15 further comprisingwashing the semiconductor sheet following irradiation to removeremaining portions of the layer.
 17. The method of claim 16 furthercomprising depositing a second doped layer following the washing stepand irradiating the second doped layer at additional selected locations,wherein one of the first layer and the second layer comprises p-dopantsand the other of the first layer and second layer comprises n-dopants18. A method for selectively depositing dopant along a dopedsemiconductor structure, the method comprising inkjet printing a firstink comprising p-doped silica/germania particles and a second inkcomprising n-doped silica/germania particles onto a silicon/germaniumsubstrate, wherein the silica/germania particles of each ink have anaverage primary particle size of no more than about 100 nm and whereineach ink has a concentration from about 0.1 to about 50 weight percentsilica/germania particles.
 19. The method of claim 18 wherein the inkshave a volume average secondary particle size of no more than about amicron.
 20. The method of claim 18 wherein the inks have a viscosityfrom about 0.1 mPa·s to about 100 mPa·s.
 21. A photovoltaic modulecomprising a transparent front sheet and a solar cell comprising asemiconductor layer secured along the transparent front sheet with afront surface facing the transparent front sheet, a rear dielectriclayer adhered to a rear surface of the semiconductor layer, dopeddomains located within openings through the rear dielectric layer, afirst electrical interconnect electrically connecting a plurality ofp-doped domains and a second electrical interconnect electricallyconnecting a plurality of n-doped domains wherein the electricalinterconnects extend into the openings.
 22. The photovoltaic module ofclaim 21 further comprising a front dielectric layer adjacent a surfaceof the transparent front sheet between the transparent front sheet andthe semiconductor layer.
 23. The photovoltaic module of claim 21 whereinthe semiconductor layer comprises a silicon/germanium foil having athickness from about 5 microns to about 100 microns.
 24. Thephotovoltaic module of claim 21 wherein the doped domains extend intothe rear surface of the semiconductor sheet and have a dopant profilewith 95 atomic percent of the dopant being within 100 nm of thesemiconductor surface.
 25. The photovoltaic module of claim 21 whereinthe doped domains comprise silicon/germanium islands extending from therear surface of the semiconductor sheet.